Class 10 Social Science History Notes

 The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

Here are some of the key points from this chapter:

1. Nationalism refers to the belief that people who share a common language, culture, and history should constitute an independent nation.

2. Nationalism emerged in Europe during the 19th century as a response to the changing social and economic conditions brought about by the Industrial Revolution.

3. The French Revolution (1789) and the Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815) played a significant role in the spread of nationalism in Europe.

4. The Romantic Movement, which emphasized the importance of emotions, individualism, and cultural identity, also contributed to the rise of nationalism.

5. Nationalism became a political force in Europe during the mid-19th century, as people began to demand greater political rights and self-government.

6. In 1848, a series of revolutions swept across Europe, with many people calling for democracy, national unity, and social equality.

7. Nationalism led to the formation of new nation-states, such as Italy and Germany, which had previously been divided into smaller states.

8. Nationalism also led to the growth of imperialist ambitions, as European powers sought to extend their influence and control over other parts of the world.

9. Nationalism had both positive and negative effects on Europe, with some people arguing that it promoted cultural diversity and individual rights, while others criticized it for promoting intolerance and conflict between nations.

Overall, this chapter highlights the complex and multifaceted nature of nationalism, and how it has shaped Europe's history and identity.

Nation (State):

A large number of people of mainly common descent, language, history, inhabiting a territory bounded by defined limits and forming a society under one government is called a nation.

Frederic Sorrieu and his visualization:

In 1848, Frederic Sorrieu, a French artist, prepared a series of four prints, visualizing his dream of a world made up of ‘democratic and social republics’, as he called them.

1. The first print shows the people of Europe and America marching in a long train, and offering homage to the Statue of Liberty as they pass by it. A female figure carries a torch of enlightenment in one hand and the Charter of the Rights of Man, in the other hand.

2. On the earth lies the shattered remains of the symbols of absolutist institutions.

3. In Sorrieu’s Utopian vision, the people of the world are grouped as distinct nations, identified through their flags and national costumes.

4. Leading the procession are USA and Switzerland, followed by France and Germany. Following Germany are Austria, Kingdom of the two Sicilies, Lombardy, Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary and Russia.

5. From the heavens above, Christ, saints and angels gaze at the scene. The artist symbolizes fraternity among the nations of the world.

The French Revolution and the idea of Nation:

1. Growth of nationalism in France.

2. Introduction of various measures and practices created sense of collective identity among the people of France.

3. Change of monarchy and establishment of republic, creation of new assembly.

4. Rise of Napoleon and his reforms. Revolutionaries help other people of Europe to become nation.

The making of Nationalism in Europe:

• Germany, Italy and Switzerland were divided into Kingdom, duchies and cantons these divisions were having their autonomous rulers.

• Uses of different languages.

• Rise of middle class.

• Industrialization in England, emergence of a working class and liberalism.

• New conservation after 1815 and preservation of traditional institution.

• After the defeat of Napoleon, the European government follows the spirit of conservatism. Conservative regimes were autocratic Revolutionaries at that time fought for liberty and freedom.
  Example, Mazzini’s young Italy and Young Europe.

Unification of Italy:

Giuseppe Mazzini had played an important role in the unification of Italy. He formed a secret society called ‘Young Italy’ in Marseilles, to spread his goals. He believed Italy could not continue to be a patchwork of small states and had to be forged into a single unified republic. During 1830’s, Mazzini sought to put together a coherent programme for a unitary Italian Republic. As uprisings in 1831 and 1848 had failed, the mantle now fell on Sardinia-Piedmont under its ruler Emmanuel II to unify Italy.

Under Chief Minister Cavour, Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in destroying the Austrian forces in 1859. Even Garibaldi joined the fray. In 1860, they marched into South Italy and the kingdom of the two Sicilies and with the help of the local peasants, drove out the Spanish rulers. In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed as King of United Italy.

Unification of Germany:

In the 18th century, Germany was divided into a number of states. Some of these states ceased to exist during the Napoleonic wars. At the end of the war, there were still 39 independent states in Germany. Prussia was most powerful, dominated by big landlords known as Junkers.

• Nationalist feelings were widespread among middle class Germans who had tried to unite the different regions of the German federation into a nation-state governed by an elected Parliament.

• In May 1848, a large number of political associations came together to vote for an all-German National Assembly. Their representatives met at Frankfurt and the Frankfurt Assembly proposed the unification of Germany as a constitutional monarchy under the King of Prussia as emperor

• The King of Prussia rejected the offer and the liberal initiative of nation building was repressed by the combined forces of the monarchy, the military and the ‘Junkers’.

• Then on, Prussia under its Chief Minister Otto Von Bismarck led the movement for unification of Germany. Bismarck carried out this process with the help of the Prussian army and the bureaucracy. He fought three wars over seven years with Denmark, Austria and France. Prussia was victorious in all these wars and the process of unification was completed as a result of Prussia’s victory over France.

• Consequently, on 18th January 1871, an assembly comprising of princes of German States, representatives of the army, important Prussian ministers and Bismarck gathered in the Palace of Versailles and proclaimed the Prussian King, Kaiser William, the new German Emperor.

Visualizing the Nation:

Marianne and Germania were both female allegories used by artists in the 19th century to represent the nation.

1. In France she was named Marianne, a popular Christian name, which underlined the idea of a people’s nation. Her characteristics were drawn from those of liberty and republic—the red cap, the tri-colour, the cockade. Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares as a national symbol of unity. Marianne images were marked on coins and stamps.

2. Instead of just having the idea of fatherland, they wanted to implant a suitable image in the minds of the people. They invariably chose the mother figure symbolizing nations—Britannia, Germania and Marianne reminding us of our concept of Matribhumi.

3. Germania became the allegory of the German nation. Germania wears a crown of oak leaves as German oak stands for heroism. It was hung from the ceiling of St. Paul’s Church, where Frankfurt Parliament was convened, to symbolize the liberal revolution.

Napoleonic Code:

1. The first major change was doing away with all privileges based on birth, establishing equality before law and securing the right to property.

2. Administrative divisions were simplified.

3. Feudal system was abolished and peasants were freed from serfdom and manorial dues (abuse of manorial lords).

4. In towns, guild restrictions were removed.

5. Transport and communication systems were improved.

6. Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen enjoyed a new found freedom.

7. Businessmen and small-scale producers of goods in particular began to realize that uniform laws, standardized weights and measures and a common national currency would facilitate the movement and exchange of goods and capital from one region to another.

Nationalism and Imperialism:

Last quarter of the 19th century nationalism became a narrow creed with limited ends, Intolerance Balkan became the sense of big power rivalry Nationalism, aligned with imperialism cause of World War I. Idea of Nationalism was now the same everywhere . But the concept of National State was accepted universally.

Nationalism in India

This chapter covers the growth of nationalism in India, the factors that led to the rise of nationalism, and the various nationalist movements that occurred in India.

1. Introduction

• India was a British colony for almost 200 years.

• British rule led to the exploitation and impoverishment of Indians.

• The Indian response to British rule was marked by various movements and protests, culminating in the independence movement.

2. The First World War, Khilafat, and Non-Cooperation

• The First World War had a significant impact on India, as Indians were asked to contribute soldiers and resources to the war effort.

• Indian leaders, such as Mahatma Gandhi, used the opportunity to push for Indian independence.

• The Khilafat movement was started by Indian Muslims to support the Ottoman Empire, which was seen as the protector of Islam.

• The Non-Cooperation movement was launched by the Indian National Congress in response to the British government's refusal to grant India more self-rule.

3. Civil Disobedience Movement

• The Civil Disobedience movement was launched by Mahatma Gandhi in 1930.

• The aim of the movement was to resist British rule by peaceful means.

• The movement involved various protests, such as the Salt Satyagraha, which saw Indians making their own salt in defiance of British salt laws.

4. Quit India Movement

• The Quit India Movement was launched by the Indian National Congress in 1942.

• The aim of the movement was to demand immediate independence for India.

• The movement saw widespread protests and strikes, which were met with brutal repression by the British government.

5. India's Independence

• India gained independence on August 15, 1947.

• The country was divided into two separate nations, India and Pakistan.

• The partition of India led to widespread violence and displacement of people.

6. The Role of Women in the Nationalist Movement

• Women played a significant role in the nationalist movement.

• They participated in protests and marches and were active in the civil disobedience movement.

• Many women, such as Sarojini Naidu and Annie Besant, were prominent leaders in the nationalist movement.

In conclusion, the growth of nationalism in India was a response to British rule and the exploitation of Indians. The various movements and protests that occurred in India led to the country's independence, but also resulted in the partition of India and widespread violence. Women played a significant role in the nationalist movement and were instrumental in the fight for Indian independence.

Mahatma Gandhi and the idea of Satyagraha:

Mahatma Gandhi returned to India in 1915 from South Africa. Gandhiji’s novel method of mass agitation is known as ‘Satyagraha’. Satyagraha emphasized truth. Gandhiji believed that if the cause is true, if the struggle is against injustice, then physical force was not necessary to fight the oppressor. A satyagrahi can win the battle through non-violence. People, including oppressors, had to be persuaded to see the truth. Truth was bound to ultimately triumph.

In India the first was at Champaran in 1916 to inspire plantation workers to struggle against the oppressive plantation system. In 1917 Satyagraha at Kheda to support peasants.

In 1918 Satyagraha at Ahmadabad:

Among the cotton mill workers.

‘Hind Swaraj’:

The famous book written by Mahatma Gandhi, which emphasized non-cooperation to British rule in India.

New economic situation created in India by the First World War:

1. Manchester imports into India declined as the British mills were busy with war production to meet the needs of the army paving the way for the Indian mills to supply for the huge home market

2. As the war prolonged, Indian factories were called upon to supply war needs. As a result new factories were set up, new workers were employed and everyone was made to work longer hrs.

3. Cotton production collapsed and exports of cotton cloth from Britain fell dramatically after the war, as it was unable to modernize and compete with US, Germany, Japan. Hence within colonies like India, local industrialists gradually consolidated their position capturing the home market.

The Rowlatt Act of 1919:

It gave the British government enormous power to repress political activities and allowed detention of political prisoners without trial for two years.

Jallianwala Bagh incident:

On 13th April 1919, a crowd of villagers who had come to attend a Baisakhi fair, gathered in the enclosed ground of Jallianwala Bagh. Being from outside the city, many were not aware of the martial law that had been imposed as a repressive measure. General Dyer with his British troops entered the park and closed the only exit point without giving any warning to the assembled people and ordered the troops to fire at the crowds, killing hundreds. This brutal act of General Dyer provoked unparalleled indignation. As the news of Jallianwala Bagh spread, crowds took to the streets in many North Indian towns. There were hartals, clashes and attacks on government buildings.

Non-cooperation programme was adopted at Nagpur in Dec. 1920.

Effects of the Non-cooperation Movement on the economy of India:

Foreign goods were boycotted, liquor shops were picketed and foreign cloth was burnt. The import of foreign cloth halved between 1921-1922. Its value dropped from Rs 102 crore to Rs 57 crore. Many merchants and traders refused to trade in foreign goods or finance foreign trade. People began discarding imported clothes and wearing Indian ones. The production of Indian textile mills and hand looms went up. Use of khadi was popularized.

Non-cooperation Movement in the countryside:

• In Awadh, the peasants’ movement led by Baba Ramchandra was against talukdars and landlords who demanded extremely high rents and a variety of other ceases from the peasants. Peasants were forced to work in landlords’ farms without any payment (beggar). Peasants had no security of tenure, thus being regularly evicted so that they could acquire no right over the leased land. The demands of the peasants were— reduction of revenue, abolition of beggar and social boycott of oppressive landlords.

• In the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh a militant guerrilla movement spread in the early 1920s against the closure of forest areas by the colonial government, preventing people from entering the forests to graze their cattle, or to collect fuel wood and fruits. They felt that their traditional rights were being denied.

• For plantation workers in Assam, freedom meant the right to move freely in and out of the confined space in which they were enclosed. It meant retaining a link with the village from which they had come. Under the Inland Emigration Act of 1859, plantation workers were not permitted to leave tea gardens without permission. In fact the permission was hardly granted. When they heard of the Non-Cooperation Movement, thousands of workers defied the authorities and left for their homes.

Slowing down of Non-cooperation Movement in cities:

• Khadi cloth was more expensive than mill cloth and poor people could not afford to buy it. As a result they could not boycott mill cloth for too long.

• Alternative Indian institutions were not there which could be used in place of the British ones.
  These were slow to come up.

• So students and teachers began trickling back to government schools and lawyers joined back work in government courts.

Khilafat movement:

Khilafat movement was started by Mahatma Gandhi and the Ali Brothers, Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali in response to the harsh treatment given to the Caliph of Ottoman empire and the dismemberment of the Ottoman empire by the British.

Chauri Chaura incident:

In February 1922, Gandhiji decided to launch a no tax movement. The police opened fire at the people who were taking part in a demonstration, without any provocation. The people turned violent in their anger and attacked the police station and set fire to it. The incident took place at Chauri Chaura in Uttar Pradesh.

When the news reached Gandhiji, he decided to call off the Non-cooperation movement as he felt that it was turning violent and that the satyagrahis were not properly trained for mass struggle.

Swaraj Party was founded by C.R. Das and Moti Lai Nehru for return to council Politics. Simon Commission 1928 and boycott. Lahore Congress session and demand for Puma Swaraj in 1929. Dandi march and the beginning of civil Disobedience movement.

Features of Civil Disobedience Movement:

• People were now asked not only to refuse cooperation with the British but also to break colonial laws.

• Foreign cloth was boycotted and people were asked to picket liquor shops.

• Peasants were asked not to pay revenue and chaukidari taxes.

• Students, lawyers and village officials were asked not to attend English medium schools, colleges, courts and offices.

‘Salt March’:

On 31st January, 1930 Mahatma Gandhi sent a letter to Viceroy Irwin starting eleven demands, one of which was the demand to abolish Salt Tax. Salt was one of the most essential food items consumed by the rich and poor alike and a tax on it was considered an oppression on the people by the British Government. Mahatma Gandhi’s letter was an ultimatum and if his demands were not fulfilled by March 11, he had threatened to launch a civil disobedience campaign. So, Mahatma Gandhi started his famous Salt March accompanied by 78 of his trusted volunteers. The march was over 240 miles, from Gandhiji’s ashram in Sabarmati to the Gujarati coastal town of Dandi. The volunteers walked for 24 days, about 10 miles a day. Thousands came to hear Mahatma Gandhi wherever he stopped, and he told them what he meant by Swaraj and urged them to peacefully defy the British. On 6th April, he reached Dandi, and ceremonially violated the law, manufacturing salt by boiling sea water. This marked the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement.

Who participated in the movement?

Civil Disobedience Movement came into force in various parts of the country. Gandhiji led the salt march from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi with his followers starting the Civil Disobedience Movement. In the countryside, the rich Patidars of Gujarat and Jats of Uttar Pradesh were active in the movement. As rich communities were very hard hit by the trade depression and falling prices, they became enthusiastic supporters of the Civil Disobedience Movement. Merchants and industrialists supported the movement by giving financial assistance and also by refusing to buy and sell the imported goods. The industrial working class of Nagpur region also participated in the Civil Disobedience Movement. Railway workers, dock workers, mineral of Chhota Nagpur, etc. participated in protest rallies and boycott campaigns.

Limits of the movement

less participation by untouchables—Ambedker for separate electorate and Poona pact of 1932, Luke warm response by some Muslim Political Organization.

Provisions of Poona pact of 1932:

Signed between Dr. Ambedkar and Gandhiji. It gave depressed classes reserved seats in central provincial councils but they were to be voted by the general electorate.

The sense of collective belonging:

Though nationalism spread through the experience of united struggle but a variety of cultural processes captured the imagination of Indians and promoted a sense of collective belonging:

1. Use of figures or images: The identity of India came to be visually associated with the image of Bharat Mata. Devotion to the mother figure came to be seen as an evidence of one’s nationalism

2. Indian folklore: Nationalists started recording and using folklore’s and tales, which they believed, gave a true picture of traditional culture that had been corrupted and damaged by outside forces. So preservation of these became a way to discover one’s national identity and restore a sense of price in one’s past.

3. Use of icons and symbols in the form of flags: Carrying the tricolor flag and holding it aloft during marches became a symbol of defiance and promoted a sense of collective belonging.

4. Reinterpretation of history: Indians began looking into the past to rediscover the glorious developments in ancient times in the field of art, science, mathematics, religion and culture, etc. This glorious time was followed by a history of decline when India got colonized, as Indian history was miserably written by the colonizers.

The Making of a Global World

This chapter focuses on the period from the mid-19th century to the early 20th century when the world witnessed significant changes due to industrialization, technological advancements, and the growth of global trade and commerce.

Here are some important notes from this chapter:

1. Industrialization brought significant changes to the world economy. It led to the growth of factory production, mass production, and the emergence of new industries. The use of machines and new technologies improved productivity, leading to an increase in the production of goods.

2. The development of steam engines and railways revolutionized transportation and communication, making it easier and faster to move goods and people across the world.

3. The growth of global trade and commerce led to the emergence of new trading networks and markets. European powers established colonies in different parts of the world to control resources and markets. The colonization of Africa and Asia was a significant outcome of this trend.

4. The expansion of global trade led to the growth of a new class of merchants and entrepreneurs who played a significant role in the world economy. Many of these individuals amassed great wealth and power.

5. The gold standard was an important monetary system that emerged during this period. It linked the value of currencies to gold, providing stability and predictability to the international monetary system.

6. The First World War marked a significant turning point in the global economy. It led to the collapse of the gold standard, and many countries had to resort to printing money to finance their war efforts. This led to inflation and economic instability in many countries.

7. The Great Depression was a global economic crisis that began in 1929. It was characterized by a sharp decline in economic activity, high unemployment rates, and widespread poverty. The crisis had a significant impact on the world economy and led to the emergence of new economic policies and systems.

8. The Bretton Woods Conference of 1944 established a new international monetary system based on the US dollar. This system provided stability and predictability to the world economy for several decades.

9. The growth of the global economy led to the emergence of new cultural, social, and political trends. These trends included the spread of new ideas, the growth of consumer culture, and the emergence of new forms of entertainment and media.

Trade:

The activity of buying selling or exchanging goods or services between people firms or countries.

Global inter contentedness:

As early as 3000 BCE (Before the Christian Era), an active coastal trade linked the Indus Valley civilization with present day West Asia. Thus, trade, migration of people, movement of capital, goods, ideas, inventions and many more have helped in creating a global world in ancient times.

Christopher Columbus:

Christopher Columbus was the explorer who discovered the vast continent of America. He took the sea route to reach there.

First World War:

The war which broke out in 1914 engulfed almost the entire world. The war was fought in Europe, Asia, Africa and the Pacific. Because of the unprecedented extent of its spread and its total nature, it is known as the First World War.

‘Chutney music’:

‘Chutney music’, popular in Trinidad and Guyana is a creative contemporary expression of the post-indenture experience. It is an example of cultural fusion between Caribbean islands and India.

Role of the ‘Silk route’:

The routes on which cargoes carried Chinese silk to the west were known as ‘Silk routes. Historians have discovered several silk routes over land and by sea, covering vast regions of Asia and connecting Asia with Europe and Northern Africa. Even pottery from China, textile and spices from India and South Asia also traveled the same route. In return, precious metals like gold and silver flowed from Europe to Asia. Culturally, Buddhism emerged from Eastern India and spread in several directions through the silk route.

Indentured labour is a bonded laborer under contract to work for an employer for a specific amount of time, to pay for his passage to a new country or home.

Reasons why it can be described as new system of slavery:

• Many migrants agreed to take up work to escape poverty and oppression in their home villages. They were cheated and were provided false information by the agents regarding their destination, modes of travel, the nature of work and working conditions.

• Often migrants were not even told that they were to go on long sea journeys.

• The tasks allotted to them on plantations were extremely heavy and could not be completed in a day. They were beaten or imprisoned.

• Deductions were made from wages if the work was considered unsatisfactory.

• Living and working conditions were harsh and there were few legal rights to protect them.

Com laws:

A Com Law was first introduced in Britain in 1804, when the landowners, who dominated Parliament, sought to protect their profits by imposing a duty on imported com. This led to an expansion of British wheat farming and to high bread prices.

Effects of Abolition of Corn Laws:

This allowed the merchants in England to import food grains from abroad at lower costs —

• It led to widespread unemployment in the agricultural sector.

• It also resulted in the rise of a prosperous capitalist class in the urban areas.

• Unemployment in the rural sector forced the movement of labor from agricultural to industrial sector.

Europeans were attracted to Africa because:

Africa had vast resources of land and minerals. Europeans came to Africa hoping to establish plantations and mines to produce crops ‘and minerals which they could export to Europe. The loss of cattle disease destroyed African livelihoods. Planters, mine owners and colonial governments now successfully monopolized what scare cattle resources remained to force Africans into the labor market. African countries were militarily weak and backward. So they were in no position to resist military aggression by European states.

‘Food offers many examples of long distance cultural exchange’:

• Traders and travelers introduced food crops to the lands they traveled. Many of our common foods, such as potatoes, maize, soya, groundnuts, tomatoes, chilies and sweet potatoes came from America.

• It is believed that noodles traveled West from China to become ‘Spaghetti’ or perhaps Arab traders took pasta to fifth century Sicily (an island in Italy). Indian ‘Rotis’ have become ‘tortillas’ in Mexico, America and western countries.

• Europe’s poor people began to eat better and live longer with the introduction of potato.

Economic effect of the First World War on Britain:’

1. To finance war expenditure, Britain had borrowed liberally from US. This meant that at the end of the war, Britain was burdened with huge external debts,

2. The war had disturbed Britain’s position of dominance in the Indian market. In India, the nationalist movement had gathered strength and anti-British feeling had become stronger among common people. Promotion of Indian industries had become one of the objectives of the nationalist leaders, which adversely affected industries in Britain.

3. There was widespread increase in unemployment coupled with decrease in agricultural and industrial production. Cotton production collapsed and export of cotton from Britain fell dramatically.

4. Unable to modernize, Britain was finding it difficult to compete with U.S., Germany and Japan internationally.

Rinderpest (cattle plague).

An infectious viral disease of cattle, domestic buffalo, etc.

Opium trade, the traffic that developed in the 18th and 19th centuries in which Great Britain, exported opium grown in India to China.

The Great Depression.

An economic situation in which most parts of the world experienced catastrophic declines in production, employment, incomes and trade. Began around 1929 and lasted till the mid-1930s.

Great Depression in the US between 1929-30:

1. Agricultural Overproduction. Falling of agricultural prices had made it even worse. As the prices fell, the agricultural income declined. To meet this situation, farmers brought larger volume of produce to the market to maintain their small income. The excessive supply couldn’t be sold due to lack of buyers and farm produce rotted.

2. US Loan Crisis. In the mid-1920s, many countries financed their investments through loans from the US. The overseas lenders panicked at the first sign of trouble. Countries that depended crucially on US loans faced an acute crisis due to the withdrawal of US loans. It led to the failure of major banks and collapse of currencies.

NIEO: Although there was unprecedented economic growth in the West and Japan, nothing was done about the poverty and lack of development in countries which were earlier colonies. Thus, there arose a need for the developing nations to organised themselves into the G-77 group to demand a New International Economic Order (NIEO). NIEO meant a system that would give them control over their own natural resources, more development assistance, fairer prices for raw materials and

and better access for their manufactured goods in developed markets.

Bretton Woods Agreement: Tire main aim of the post-war international economic system was to preserve economic stability and full employment in the industrial world. A framework of the scheme was prepared. The famous economist John Maynard Keynes directed the preparation of the frame-work and it was agreed upon at the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference held in July 1944 at Bretton Woods in New Hampshire in USA. According to the Bretton Woods Conference, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank were set up. IMF was set up to deal with external surpluses and deficits of its member nations and the World Bank was to finance post-war reconstruction. These two are referred to as Bretton Woods institutions or, sometimes, ‘Bretton Woods twins’. Decision making in these institutions was controlled by the Western industrial powers and the US even had Veto over their key decisions. The post-war economic system is often described as the Bretton Wood system.

The Age of Industrialisation

This chapter covers the growth of industries in Europe and its impact on the economy, society, and politics of Europe.

Here are some important notes from this chapter:

1. The Industrial Revolution started in Britain in the 18th century and spread to other parts of Europe and the world in the 19th century. It led to the growth of industries, factories, and machines, and brought about a massive change in the way goods were produced.

2. The growth of industries led to the rise of capitalism, which is an economic system based on private ownership of the means of production and the pursuit of profit.

3. Industrialization brought about significant changes in society, such as the growth of urbanization, the emergence of the middle class, and the decline of traditional rural occupations.

4. The growth of industries also led to the exploitation of workers, especially women and children, who worked long hours in dangerous and unhealthy conditions.

5. The impact of industrialization was not limited to the economy and society but also had significant political consequences. It led to the rise of nationalism and the growth of labor movements and socialist ideas.

6. The growth of industries led to the emergence of new inventions and innovations, such as the steam engine, telegraph, and railroads, which revolutionized transportation and communication.

7. The impact of industrialization was not limited to Europe but also had far-reaching consequences for other parts of the world, such as India, which became a colony of Britain and was exploited for its raw materials and markets.

8. The Age of Industrialization brought about significant changes in the world and marked the beginning of a new era in human history.

Key Concepts:

• An association of craftsmen or merchants following same craft to protect the members interest and supervise the standard of the work.

• Tanning. Convert raw hide into leather by soaking in liquid containing tannic acid.

• Food processing. Technique of chopping and mixing food for making jam, juices, etc.

• Victorian Britain. Britain during the reign of Queen Victoria.

• Brewery. A place where beer etc. is brewed commercially. Brewing is a process of infusion, boiling and fermentation.

• Vagrant. A person without a settled home or regular work.

• Bourgeois. The upper middle class.

• Gomastha. An Indian word meaning an agent, a middle man between the merchant and weavers.

• Stapler. A person who staples or sorts wool according to its fiber.

Industrialisation:

Production of goods with the help of machines in factories. The first industrialized Nation-Britain.

Features:

Handmade goods to machine made goods in factories, cottage to factory, large scale production, started in England in later parts of 18th Century. In course of time, it affected all systems of production.

Before Industrial Revolution

Proto-Industrialisation:

• Production in 17th century, artisans worked for merchants to produce goods, artisans took raw material from merchants for production. Their cottages functioned as a factory.

• Association of producers, trained craft people maintained control over production, restricted entry of new traders. This period saw the coming of factories.

Coming up of factories:

• Early factories in England came up by the 1730s.

• First symbol of new era-cotton mill

• Many factories sprang up in England

• A series of inventions took place in the form of carding, twisting, spinning and rolling.

The pace of Industrial change:

• Cotton and iron and steel industries were the most dynamic industries.

• New industries could not displace traditional ones.

• Technological changes occurred slowly.

• Steam engine invented by James Watt had no buyers for years.

• New technologies were slow to be accepted.

Hand labor and stream power:

• In Victorian Britain there was no shortage of human labor.

• In many industries the demand for labor was seasonal.

• Range of products could be produced only with hand labor.

• There was a demand for intricate designs.

• Upper classes preferred things produced by hand.

Life of the worker:

• Abundance of labor affected the life of workers badly.

• Labour was seasonal.

• Fear of unemployment made workers hostile to new technology.

• Women labors protested against the introduction of the Spinning Jenny.

• Introduction of railways opened greater opportunities.

Industrialisation in the colonies:

• Textile industry was the center of industrialization in India.

Age of Indian textiles

• Finer varieties of cotton from India were exported.

• A vibrant sea trade operated through pre-colonial ports.

What happened to weavers?

• East India Company appointed “gomasthas” to collect supply from weavers.

• Weavers lost bargaining power and lost lands for settling loans.

Gomasthas:

The Gomasthas were paid servants whose job was to supervise weavers, collect supplies and examine the quality of cloth.

• The aim of the East India Company behind appointing gomasthas was to work out a system of management and control that would eliminate competition, control costs and ensure regular supplies of cotton and silk.

• Soon there were clashes between the weavers and the gomasthas who began ill-treating the weavers.

• They did not allow the company weavers to sell their produce to other buyers. Once an order
  was placed, the weavers were given loans to purchase the raw material. Weavers who had accepted loans from the company had to hand over the cloth they produced to the gomasthas only.

• The weavers were forced to sell their goods to company’s officials.
  When the American Civil War broke out and cotton supplies from the US were cut off, Britain’s demand for raw cotton from India increased.

Manchester comes to India:

• By 1950s, India began to import Manchester cotton from Britain.

• With the rise in Manchester imports, Indian export and local market declined.

• Supply of raw cotton in India decreased.

• Weavers were forced to buy cotton at high prices.

Factories come up:

• Industries were set up in different regions.

• First cotton mill came in Bombay in 1854.

• The first jute mill came up in Bengal in 1855.

• 1830s-1840s—Dwarakanath Tagore setup six-joint stock companies in Bengal.

• Capital was accumulated through other trade networks.

• Till the First World War European managing agencies in fact controlled large sectors of Indian industries.

Where did the workers come from?

• Most of the workers came from Indian villages.

Peculiarities of industrial growth:

• Early Indian cotton mills made coarse cotton yam.

• During the First World War Manchester imports to India declined.

• Indian factories supplied goods for war needs.

Small scale industries predominated:

• Most of the Industries were located in Bengal and Bombay.

• A small portion of total industrial labor worked in factories.

• Use of fly shuttle increased handicraft.

Market for goods:

Advertisements helps in creating new consumers.

• When Manchester industrialists began selling cloth in India, they put labels on the cloth bundles, to make the place of manufacture and the name of the company familiar to the buyer. When buyers saw ‘Made in Manchester’, written in bold on the label, they felt confident to buy the cloth.

• The labels carried images and were beautifully illustrated with images of Indian gods and goddesses. The printed image of Krishna or Saraswati was also intended to make the manufacture from a foreign land, appear familiar to Indians.

• Manufacturers also printed calendars to popularize their products.

• When Indian manufacturers advertised, the nationalist message was clear and loud. If you care for the nation,. then buy only ‘Indian’ products. Advertisements became a vehicle of the nationalist message of Swadeshi.

Print Culture and the Modern World

This chapter explores the role of print culture in shaping modern society and politics.

Here are some important notes from this chapter:

1. The printing press was invented by Johannes Gutenberg in the mid-15th century. It revolutionized the way information was disseminated and helped to spread ideas and knowledge more widely.

2. In India, the printing press was introduced by the Portuguese in the 16th century. However, it was only in the 19th century that printing technology began to spread more widely, leading to the growth of a vibrant print culture.

3. The growth of print culture played an important role in the rise of nationalism in India. Newspapers, books, and pamphlets helped to spread nationalist ideas and unite people in the struggle for independence.

4. The Vernacular Press Act of 1878 was passed by the British government to regulate the Indian press. It required newspapers to obtain a license from the government and allowed the government to suppress publications that were deemed to be seditious.

5. The growth of print culture also had an impact on social and cultural practices. It helped to spread new ideas about education, women's rights, and social reform.

6. The role of print culture in shaping modern society can be seen in the rise of popular literature, including novels and short stories. This literature helped to create a sense of shared culture and identity among people.

7. The spread of print culture also had a profound impact on politics. It helped to create a public sphere in which people could exchange ideas and debate political issues. This, in turn, led to the growth of political movements and the emergence of modern democracy.

8. The growth of print culture also had its downsides. It led to the spread of misinformation and propaganda, which could be used to manipulate public opinion. It also contributed to the growth of consumer culture and the commodification of knowledge.

Overall, the growth of print culture played an important role in shaping modern society and politics. It helped to spread knowledge and ideas, create a sense of shared culture and identity, and foster the growth of political movements and democracy.

Printing in the early days:

Invention of Printing Press had a very lasting effect on the social and cultural life of man. Print initially developed in East Asia and later developed through Europe and India. Before the era of print or invention of Printing Press, writing of books was purely manual affair. Books were handwritten and even illustrated. Calligraphy developed as an art during that era. Calligraphy means the art of beautiful and stylish writing.

Printed matter Chinese tradition.

Chinese were the first to have a system of recruitment of civil service personal through open examination. Printing remained confined to examination materials till around the 16th century. Trade information was circulated among the traders through printed materials. By 19th century mechanical printing press made its appearance in China.

The First Printing Press was invented in 1430s by Johann Gutenberg. Johann Gutenberg’s Bible was the most beautiful books ever printed. Germany took the lead in revolutionizing printing all over Europe.

Features of handwritten manuscripts:

• They were copied on palm leaves or on handmade papers. Pages were beautifully illustrated.

• They were pressed between wooden covers or sewn together to ensure preservation.

• Manuscripts were available in vernacular languages. They were highly expensive and fragile. They could not be read easily as script was written in different styles. They were not widely used in everyday life.

Woodblock method became popular in Europe:

Production of handwritten manuscripts could not meet the ever increasing demand for books. Copying was an expensive, laborious and time consuming business. The manuscripts were fragile, awkward to handle and could not be carried around or read easily. By the early 15th century, woodblocks started being widely used in Europe to print textiles, playing cards and religious pictures with simple, brief texts.

Visual culture:

In the end of 19th century a new visual culture had started. With the increasing number of printing presses visual images could be easily reproduced in multiple copies. Painters like Raja Ravi Verma produced images for mass circulation. Cheap prints and calendars were brought even by the poor to decorate the walls of their houses.

Print popularized the ideas of the idea of the enlightenment thinkers:

• Collectively the writings of thinkers provided a critical commentary on tradition, superstition and despotism.

• Scholars and thinkers argued for the rule of reason rather than custom and demanded that everything to be judged through the application of reason and rationality.

• They attacked the sacred authority of the church and the despotic power of the state thus eroding the legitimacy of a social order based on tradition.

• The writing of Voltaire and Rousseau were read widely and those who read these books saw the world through new eyes, eyes that were questioning critical and rational

Development of reading mania in Europe:

A new forms of popular literature appeared to target new readers. There were ritual calendars along with ballads and folk tales. In England penny chapbooks were carried by petty peddlers known as chapmen and sold for a penny. In France these low priced books were called Bibliotheque Bleue as they were bound in cheap blue covers. Periodical presses developed to combine information on current affairs with entertainment. The idea of scientists and scholars had now become more accessible to the common people.

Impact of print on Indian women:

Writers started writing about the lives of women and this increased the number of women readers. Women writers began to write their own autobiographies. They highlighted the condition of women, their ignorance and how they were forced to do hard domestic labor. A large section of Hindu writing was devoted to the education of women. In the early 20th century the journals written by women became very popular in which women’s education, widowhood, widow remarriage were discussed.

Print culture created the conditions within which the French Revolution:

The print popularized the ideas of the enlightened thinkers who attacked the authority of the church and the despotic power of the state. The print created a new culture of dialogue and debate and the public become aware of reasoning. They recognized the need to question the existing ideas and beliefs. The literature of 1780s mocked the royalty and criticized their morality and the existing social order.

India and Print Culture:

Print culture came to India with the coming of Portuguese missionaries. Konkani was the first Indian language in which books were printed. The first Tamil book printed was printed in 1579 and Malayalam book in 1713. English printing in India commenced with the publication of Bengal Gazette in 1780. Printed tracts played a very significant role in the spread of social reform movement in India.

The Vernacular Press Act:

• In 1878, the Vernacular Press Act was passed by the British Government to impose restrictions on vernacular press, which was responsible for spreading nationalist ideas.

• The government started to keep a regular track of the vernacular newspapers and had extensive rights to censor reports and editorials in the vernacular press.

• When a report was judged as seditious, the newspaper was warned, and if the warning was ignored, the press was liable to be seized and the printing machinery confiscated.